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A golem, perhaps the best known of the Jewish legends, is an automaton, typically humanoid and typically male, created as the result of an intense, systematic, mystical meditation. The word golem means (or implies) something unformed and imperfect, or a body without a soul. The word appears once in the Bible, in Psalms 139:15-16.
The best-known tales of the golem concern one Rabbi Yehuda Loew, the Marharal of Prague, who created the mythical being to protect the Jews from blood libels and plots often instigated by the priest Thaddeus. This story, in all of its variants, may be one you're familiar with. But quite a number of Kabbalists, both practical and theoretical, have discussed the golem, from the Talmudic era on, in both physical and purely mystical contexts.
Early History: The Golem and "Sefer Yetzitah"
Stories of artificial creations made by Jewish sages appear very early, during the Talmudic era (prior to 500 C.E.). In theological discussions, Adam is described as a golem during the time of his formation, but prior to God blowing life and (more importantly) soul into him.
The earliest written story of such a creature occurs in the Babylonian Talmud, in Sanhedrin 65b:
Rava said: "If the righteous wished, they could create a world, for it is written: 'Your inequities are a barrier between you and your God.'" For Rava created a man and sent him to R[abbi] Zeira. The rabbi spoke to him [the man] but he did not answer. Then he [Zeira] said: "You are from the pietists. Return to your dust." (Translation: Moshe Idel.)
By another early account Rava and Rabbi Zeira, through their meditations, created a calf, which they then slaughtered and ate; in another variant, Rabbis Khanina and Hoshaya did the same, just before each Sabbath.
The power of the written word, Torah, Hebrew alphabet, and the Names of God were well-known to these people, and it was believed that the secrets of the universe were locked within them. These hidden knowledges included the power of creation. Those who wished to study this sort of thing had a handbook: the Sefer Yetzira, the Book of Creation.